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The international volunteer tourism experience in South Africa: An investigation into the impact on the tourist.

Abstract This paper is extracted from an ongoing study on the effect of engaging in international volunteer work as a tourist in South Africa, through a Cape Town based provider, AVIVA SA. Data was collected from fifty volunteer tourists using a web-based personality inventory prior to and post the volunteer vacation. Subsequent personality changes, determined by measuring fifteen core traits, were compared with a similar sized control group. Thereafter personal interviews were conducted to understand the experience, causes for the resulting changes and their effect on the volunteer tourists. The findings point to significant changes in six traits, which were manifested in the volunteers day-to-day life; they add to a growing body of literature on volunteer tourism, and by highlighting the benefits of volunteer tourism, may have marketing implications. Key words: Volunteer tourism, traits, personal change, South Africa.

Conference Paper for Global Sustainable International Conference, 15 - 19 November 2010, NELSPRUIT - MBOMBELA - SOUTH AFRICA Presenter: Zo Alexander (1st author) affiliated to Buckinghamshire New University, United Kingdom (Faculty of Design, Media and Management) and supervised by Dr Ali Bakir (2nd author). Introduction This paper is extracted from an ongoing study on the effect of engaging in international volunteer work as a tourist in South Africa. Volunteer tourism is seen to provide a form of travel in which both the volunteer and the host communities gain from the experience (Raymond and Hall, 2008). Understanding the tourist experience is an essential prerequisite for successful destination marketing (Yoon and Uysal, 2005); and understanding the type of specific benefits gained by visitors is an important dimension of sustainable product development (Wearing, 2001). Literature review

The literature on the impact of volunteer tourism on the volunteer suggests that volunteer tourism promotes personal development and cross-cultural understanding. For example, Wearing (2001) found that interactions with other volunteers and the community helped develop the volunteers' confidence, and increased their awareness of other people and environments. Similarly, Broad (2003) observed some personal change in the volunteers in terms of increased knowledge, confidence and skills, and changes in the way they viewed their lives and the world. More recently, Harlow and Pomfret (2007) identified a number of similar themes in the way individuals perceive themselves in relation to the world around them. Zahra and McIntosh (2007) found that the volunteers' experiences did not only leave a lasting impression but also significantly altered their attitudes, values and behaviour. Lepp (2008) also recorded changes in the volunteers, including being able to put things in perspective when they go wrong; plotting a more meaningful course in life; and new goals. Lepp additionally identified that it was the experience of interacting with locals that enabled the volunteers to discover these things about themselves. Recently, Clemmons and McGehee (2008) identified geographic destination; interaction type; intensity of experience; motivation; expectation; willingness/personal effort; project preference; and previous life experience, as eight primary transformative elements. Daldeniz (2009) and Tomazos and Butler (2008) suggest that the volunteering experience is likely to vary greatly from individual to individual. Not all researchers, however, concur on the transformative potential of volunteer tourism; Gudykunst (1998), for example, labels gap yearers' as fluent fools' who have the language of understanding but possess little actual understanding. Likewise Simpson (2004) argues that gap year providers' claims for the educative benefits of overseas volunteering are based on flawed assumptions. The literature supports the potential of volunteer tourism as an agent for change (McGehee and Santos, 2005). More specifically, Wearing (2001) proposed that social interaction between participants on a particular project site with representatives of the community, [volunteer] group and natural environment results in an exchange of influence' (p.124). This influence, he suggests, can change the tourist because the tourist is an active, thinking unit who is able to construct meaning from the milieu in which he or she lives. Concurring, McGehee (2002) and McGehee and Santos (2005) suggest that as a consequence of the social networks established during an expedition, volunteers can be inspired to become socially active at home. However, some of these volunteers who felt strongly that the volunteer experience changed them, had difficulty articulating the specific benefits; thus undermining the usefulness of some data collection methods.

The study adopts a quantitative approach using a personality inventory to collect data. This also drives the use of a structured qualitative method, the interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of interviews. The mixed-method design increases the validity of the data, creating a more complete picture of reality (Feyeraband, 1975). As such, the methodological approach follows Morse's (1991) sequential explanatory design', where data from one method (quantitative personality inventory) is collected and analysed before before moving on to the next method (IPA of interviews). Personality tests focus on the quantitative measurements of traits, or identifiable characteristics that define a person (Ong and Van Dulmen, 2007; Solomon, 1996). These tests involve asking individuals who are asked to rate their own actions or feelings in set situations, thus providing a convenient snapshot of a person's position at a given moment in time (Albery, Chandler, Field, Jones, Messer, Moore and Sterling, 2004). The IPIP-NEO Personality Inventory was used because: it covers all the major dimensions of personality comprehensively, there is no cost for using it, and it is very stable over long periods of time (Johnson, 2007). The IPIP-NEO is also simple and easy to use, administer and score. Using this tool, fifteen traits[1] were measured. It is acknowledged that there are problems with personality inventories in that they only capture specific types of data; in this case it only measures traits, ignoring all those other areas subject to change. The next stage in the research design involved understanding the meaning of those changes for the individuals concerned. As the sampling unit was dispersed around the world, a web-based option, in the form of structured email interviews, appeared to be the most practical method to capture data. The interview scripts were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA); a relatively recent qualitative technique developed specifically for psychology studies. The aim of the IPA is to understand what volunteers think about their volunteer tourism experiences (Smith and Osborn, 2004), what may have triggered their changes and the effects of those changes in their daily lives. It was the preferred method for this study because of its suitability where one is concerned to understand something about process and change (Higginson and Mansell, 2008). It is a structured step-by-step process that involves identifying emerging themes from the data (Meek, 2007; Reid, Flowers and Larkin, 2005), and discovering connections between data to establish categories and eventually master categories. In this respect it is similar to grounded theory; however, the aim of grounded theory is to develop theory whereas IPA is concerned with developing an understanding of individuals' experiences (Shaw, 2001).

Two samples were used, volunteer tourists and control group. In determining the sample size, the challenge was establishing how many responses were required to provide results that could be generalised to AVIVA volunteer tourists. 50 participants were advised[2], representing 20% of AVIVA'S population of approximately 250 volunteers in 2009-2010. For the control group's size, it was not necessary to match one to one', and as long as the control group has a similar socioeconomic range, roughly half (30) the number of volunteer tourists was deemed sufficient. The 50 volunteer tourists' sample consisted of people who put themselves forward to take part in the research (Albery et al, 2004). This sample was made up of 9 men and 41 women, there were thirty-six 16-29 year old peoples and fourteen 30+. This profile is similar to that found in most volunteer tourism research as well as recent industry figures (see Gecko, Bradt Travel Guides and Lasso Communications, 2009; Harlow and Pomfret, 2007; Lepp, 2008; Lough et al, 2009, McGehee, 2002, 2005; McIntosh and Zahra, 2007; Sin, 2009; Wearing, 2001; Zahra, 2006). The participants spent an average of 4100 (R51000), stayed an average 9 weeks, and participated in volunteering 60% of their holiday time. The weekends were generally spent relaxing and doing tourism activities such as shark-diving, clubbing, site-seeing and shopping. The majority of volunteers (60%) participated in children and community projects, 36% in wildlife and conservation projects, and 4% in both. The greatest percentage of the sample were from United Kingdom (42%), followed by USA (20%), Europe (20%), Australia and New Zealand (12%), Canada (4%), and Southern Africa (2%). All volunteers booked their international volunteering trip through the AVIVA organisation; the latter provided the link between the volunteer tourists and the data collection web-site (www.bucksresearch.org.uk) via the on-line booking confirmation. The control group of 30 people were roughly matched to the volunteers on age, gender and socio-economic variables. There were 7 men and 23 women, and twenty-one 16-29 years old and nine 30+. As in the volunteer tourists, the largest occupational groups were students, professionals, and managers. The control group were selected through opportunity sampling, where people were willing to take part in the research when asked rather than volunteering (Albery et al, 2004). The control group consisted of people who did not undertake volunteer tourism; their selection involved some snowballing.

The statistical results presented in the tables below were obtained from fifty volunteer tourists and thirty control group members, using two-tailed t-tests for dependent samples.

Table 1 shows initially eight personality traits (out of fifteen) significantly changed amongst the volunteer group as a whole after their international volunteering experience. Just one personality trait (assertiveness) significantly changed (increased) amongst the control group as a whole, over a similar period of time (six months).

Table 2 compares the changes in the personality traits of the volunteer group to the changes in the personality traits of the control group using standard deviation and the variance. The significant differences between the two groups are apparent in initially eleven personality traits. However, comparing the significant changes in the volunteer tourists (Table 1) to the significant differences between the volunteer tourists and the control groups (Table 2), only six personality traits remain significant, they are: anxiety, depression, assertiveness, emotionality, adventurousness, and vulnerability. With regard to the other traits, either the differences between the two groups were not significant or there were no significant differences between the pre and post inventory results of the volunteer tourists.

The interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was employed to interpret data from interviewing 30 volunteers; all completed both personality inventories.

The experience categories (Table 3) that emerged from the responses were: action', responsibility', participation', immersion', interaction', and expectations/satisfaction levels'. The impacts categories (Table 4) that arose from the responses were: changes around people's personal circumstances', behaviour', emotions', confidence', values', knowledge or skills', and attitudes'.

Changes in confidence' also emerged as a theme: "I feel I could deal with other situations now, which take me outside my comfort zone" (volunteer 4); "I am not quite as nervous now in new situations" (volunteer 21); and "I have greater confidence" (volunteer 9). Confidence is demonstrated in the volunteers' taking responsibility': "I met situations that took me outside my comfort zone" (volunteer 4), and "I made the trip on my own and met new people. I arranged a lot of stuff myself during my trip and found solutions to problems" (volunteer 9). The change in volunteer 21 was expressed in terms of her doing something - acting': "toured around East Africa for a few weeks, constantly in a different area and situation and meeting various people every day".

The emerging codes from the changes/impacts described under the anxiety trait include: changes in behaviour, emotions, confidence, values, and attitudes; and the emerging themes from the experiences that caused the change/s include: action, responsibility, participation and interaction.

Depression - the levels of depression decreased after the international volunteering experience; the volunteer tourists feel happier and more positive; and have fewer tendencies to feel sad, dejected, or discouraged. Van Willigen (2000) and Frankl (2004), similarly, found that depression decreases as a result of engagement in a meaningful activity, such as, volunteer work. Volunteer 12 retorted: "I am grateful for what I have and now have a sense of duty to help whilst I can" - a behavioural change' that was also accompanied by an attitude change': "I have a lighter outlook on things". Volunteer 15 expressed an emotional change': "volunteering opened my eyes about other peoples' way of life .......I have a sense of accomplishment". She attributed this change to her participation': "the children I cared for suffered many disadvantages but they were generally very positive and dealt with things the best way they could". Volunteer 3 experienced a value change': "I realised that no matter how bad things are you have got to make the most of life and live life to the full". This, she felt, was brought about by her "encounter with people living with HIV and AIDS who were also warm, kind and happy" - a participatory experience'. Attitude change' was also evident in volunteer 11: "I look at the positive side of things now because I realise I have food, clothes and water". She attributed this change to her participating': "seeing people who had nothing which made me feel very humble".

The emerging codes from the changes described under the depression trait were similar to those described under the anxiety trait and include changes in behaviour, emotions, values, and attitudes; and the emerging theme for the volunteer experience was participation.

Assertiveness - The levels of assertiveness significantly increased following the international volunteering experience; the volunteer tourists are likely to speak out more, take charge, and direct the activities of others; and have more of a tendency towards leading. Evidence of this impact is found in Lepp (2008), McGehee and Santos (2005), and Wearing (2001); however, these studies did not identify assertiveness as a specific impact of the volunteer experience.

Volunteer 21 relayed: "By the time I left the children I was quite happy to tell them off if they needed it and to help discipline them" - involvement' with children. Other volunteers associated their experience of increased assertiveness with their experience of taking responsibility': "I try to find solutions to problems" (volunteer 9), "I proved to myself what I am capable of; going to another country by your-self to do something worthwhile" (volunteer 15), and "we had to take charge and responsibility for the children" volunteer 28. Volunteer 28 describes an immersive experience': "they called us mama from the second we walked in. They made us feel so welcome, they needed so much love and care"; and the interaction': "I felt I had to prove to the ladies who worked there that I didn't feel like a better person and that I just wanted to help and after some time we became good friends ......, and they became as fond of us as we of them"; the impact was one of confidence': "I learned so much about taking chances and not to be afraid of doing new things".

The emerging code from the change described under the assertiveness trait is confidence; and the emerging themes, from the experiences are: involvement, taking responsibility, immersion, and interaction.

Emotionality - Emotionality significantly increased as a result of the international volunteering experience; the volunteer tourists have better access to, and awareness of, their own feelings. Again, there is much evidence of this trait in other studies, however, change in emotionality', like assertiveness', was not identified in these studies as a specific impact of the volunteer tourism experience.

The results show that emotionality increased as a result of the international volunteering experience. Volunteer 13 said: "I learned a lot especially respect of other cultures and understanding others' feelings and their individuality" - gaining knowledge or skills'. The same volunteer also felt that the experience was one of cultural immersion' and taking responsibility' for oneself: "living in a different country, with different people and a different language".

Adventurousness - Adventurousness significantly increased as a result of the international volunteering experience; the volunteer tourists are more eager to try new activities, travel to foreign lands, and experience different things and find familiarity and routine boring. Change in this trait was not identified in other volunteer tourism studies as a specific impact of volunteer tourism. This study's volunteers' experienced having increased confidence': "I am not quite as nervous to try new experiences" (volunteer 21); "I feel a sense of achievement and will do more travelling as a woman solo traveller" (volunteer 3). The increased confidence for volunteer 21 was a result of getting involved' in the experience: "not wanting to miss out on experiences you can't do at home such as shark diving and sand boarding and experiencing different cultures". For volunteer 3, the change was a result of taking responsibility': "being placed in a different country for the first time on your own". Volunteer 2 expressed the same sentiment: "travelling on your own to a new country". Other volunteers described experiences involving participation' and immersion': "I took the opportunity to try new things such as white water rafting, and took the opportunity for cultural immersion" (volunteer 2). Volunteer 29 experienced action': "I did my sky dive, climbed mountains, hiked glaciers, did shark cage diving and much more.....oh and had a snake wrapped round my neck...while I was away I very much had the attitude of feel the fear and do it anyway."

The recurring change theme was thus confidence; and the experience themes were involvement, participation, responsibility, immersion and action.

Vulnerability - Vulnerability significantly decreased as a result of the international volunteering experience; the volunteer tourists generally feel more poised, confident, and think more clearly under stress. These findings support Wearing (2001) and Broad (2003) in terms of increased confidence levels. Volunteers noted changes in personal circumstances': "I have since changed jobs" (volunteer 6); changes in confidence': "my confidence has grown dramatically and I take up every single opportunity now" (volunteer 7); and attitude' change: "I am less caught up and worried about small things" (volunteer 10). Volunteer 7 pointed to the responsibility' of "going to another continent without having much contact with home and being far away", and participation' in various projects: "I saw people and children who were much more vulnerable than me"; and "I saw how resilient the children were, they never whined or complained, just got on with things, it made me realise that I am quite a complainer. I also saw the care workers who work so hard for so little money; it made me realise how cushy my life is" (Volunteer 10).

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[1] Professor Johnson wrote descriptions of these traits based on extensive reading of the scientific literature on personality measurement. These descriptions are in the public domain and can be found on the IPIP web-site: http://ipip.ori.org.

[2] Advice sought from Prof. Charles Malcolm, Head of Psychology at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa.